Yehuda Amichai: Stages of Life

           Yehuda Amichai’s work is filled with sentiments and ideas that appeal to a wide range of people. His work, “God Has Pity on Kindergarten Children,” is no exception. Within the multilayered work he references the stages of life, their relative ease/difficulty, as well as the religious and secular tones that go along with those stages of life. He also cleverly uses punctuation to help further convey the point of his utterances.

            The stages of life referenced in the work are childhood, the adolescent period, and adulthood. Each of these stages has its own level of pity from God. In childhood God has the most pity. This can be taken literally, for those of a religious disposition, or metaphorically. If taken as the latter childhood represent a naïve time of existence. Everything under the sun is new, exciting, and stimulating. The body grows stronger every day and one’s capacity to learn appears to be limitless. Children have a chance to craft their own destiny and only an act of God can stop them. It’s important to note that the line corresponding with this sentiment ends in a hard stop. Using such punctuation makes it appear as a cold hard fact. As we will see later this is not the case for all stages. It also depicts that Childhood has a defined beginning and endpoint. This endpoint leads into the next stage, adolescence.

            The second stage is adolescence. This too ends in a hard stop signifying a fact and a determined period of time. But, it is also a bit less optimistic about the chance of pity from God. The text states, “He has less pity on schoolchildren” (Amichai ln. 2). This is in part due to the nature of humankind. As we grow older we advance in thought and in body. The world isn’t as fresh as it once was and our fascination with God’s creation begins to take on a jaded hue. The hearts and minds of people are introduced to some of the cold truths of existence and the world no longer seems the perfect place it did when one was a child. The end of this line leads into the brutal realities of adulthood.

            Finally the subject of adulthood it broached. The lines here become longer, adding more information and insight into God having no pity on adults. The hard stop gives way to commas allowing the journey to continue on with only brief respites from the difficulty to be faced in the adult world. Although there is much horror in the world there still remains a glimmer of hope. When referencing this brief times of relief (primarily through love or by reaching old age) there is a lack of stops signifying the fleeting nature of such experience. It also shows how time will continue on like a stone rolling down a steep hill.

            Finally, Amichai’s speaker notes that the power for compassion resides in all of us. He uses only one soft stop in the final stanza giving the reader a moment to pause before the grand message of the poem is laid out. That message is that even if God shows no pity we still harbor the ability to show compassion toward one another through all stages of life.

Works Cited

Amichai, Yehuda. “God Has Pity on Kindergarten Children”. The Norton Anthology of World        Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 1620-1621. Print.

Existence's Bandages in Lispector's "The Daydreams of a Drunk Woman"

        Clarice Lispector’s work “The Daydreams of a Drunk Woman” is fraught with strings of thoughts relating to the meaning of various states of existence. One of the most prominent themes of these questions relate to what it means to be a woman unable to fully delve into, or fully understand, their problems.  The questions that arise from this dilemma are partially answered by other questions. Which in turn spawns other questions leading both the narrator and the reader further into an existential rabbit hole. The most interesting facet of these questions is that they are never directly addressed. Rather, they are stated matter-of-factly giving the impression that the narrator isn’t overly concerned with solving their dilemma. To put it into a metaphor the narrator prefers to place bandages on top of other previous bandages instead of trying to sew the wound shut so it can heal. In the end nothing is ever answered and all that remains is a large pile of bandages over an open scab of bleeding, pus ridden thought.

                Throughout the work the narrator is continuously trying to understand herself, her actions, and what the combination of the two creates. One of her usual methods of attempting to understand herself this is through self-dialogue. Early in the work, laying stomach down on the bed, she states, “‘Whosoever found, searched,’ she said to herself in the form of a rhymed refrain, which always ended up by sounding like some maxim” (Lispector 1556).  The inclusion of “which always” allows the reader to know this isn’t a onetime occurrence. Rather than continuing to ponder this line of thinking she decides sleep is a better option. She puts off this exploration of self, places the bandage of sleep over it and drifts off into unconsciousness.

                Later in the work we see her remove the bandages with alcohol. After imbibing some alcoholic beverages she explores the surrounding restaurant with a drunkard’s keen gaze. During her exploring she imagines herself more full of something. What that is isn’t directly relayed but her thoughts speak of being somewhat superior to everyone else in the establishment. The text writes, “she peered around the room, and how she despised the barren people in that restaurant, while she was plump and heavy and generous to the full” (1558). Among all of them it is only her that has some fantastic insight into the inner workings of the world.  

Through the medium of intoxication she is capable of digging deeper into her self-exploration and the exploration of the human experience. The alcohol works as a tool to escape, if ever so briefly, from the limited realm of experience in which she usually lives. The texts writes, “And everything in the restaurant seemed so remote, the one thing distant from the other, as if the one might never be able to converse with the other. Each existing for itself, and God existing there for everyone” (1558). In this moment she seems to nearly find an answer to all of her questions. Then the tentacles of human life wrap themselves around the narrator once more, pulling her back into her box of reality. It’s through viewing another woman that she returns back into the normal mode of thought.

She becomes jealous and angry toward woman with her boyfriend, not realizing that it is her own self that she is angry with. It has nothing to do with the “pious ninny so pleased with herself in that hat and so modest about her slim waistline” (1559). The narrator finds strength in her ability to have given birth to a child, and that her apparent curvy figure is indicative of pleasure. Nonetheless the narrator wanders through the rest of the text unable to rip off all the bandages and sew the wound shut.

Works Cited

Lispector, Clarice. “The Daydreams of a Drunk Woman”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 1555-1560. Print.

Neruda: Viewing Life from Another Perspective

       Pablo Neruda’s work “Walking Around” depicts the intimate closeness of material objects and the new and exciting modern forms of entertainments as negative aspects detracting from a “real” existence. The dense nature of modern life, the objects that fill the once empty or natural spaces, and entertainment available have sucked the life out of those who inhabit this city. What’s left behind is a cold, depressing, place inhabited by beings living a lesser form of life. If this written work were a painting it would be ashy grey, various shades of darker blue pieced by yellow moments of artistic genius. It is a work that simultaneously states the thoughts and positions of mankind in the modernist world and the undeniable notion that something different has happened to the natural state of human affairs. Only through escape from “normal” human existence can one be rid of the terrible conditions presented.

Material goods have always been used to help people show their association or disassociation with various groups and ideas. From ancient rings of iron and sea shells for ornamentation, to huge powdered French hair, to baggy jeans, to an Italian made sports car, each are material goods that help people to determine where in society they think they are. Also, this may help others determine where these people are along the social or financial ladders as well. Extending this notion from an individual to a macroscopic scale is also possible. For cities or nations with movie theaters, tanks, planes, elevators, and huge shopping stores look much more appealing than a hut in the dessert. Yet Neruda realized that facades are no indication of what lies inside of something. The shiny lights, the exciting distractions, and the purchasing power may appear appealing from the outside but the poems speaker tells part of the story from another side. A darker side that hides just behind the façade of the modern world.

       Neruda plays on the human tendency to judge by an objects surface value when describing his view of the city. The poems speaker relays their dislike of the modern world in the very first line of the work stating, “It happens that I am tired of being a man” (Neruda ln. 1). The speaker’s disdain really picks up in the second stanza of the work. While in the first stanza the speaker merely dips their toes in the loathsome state of the city, in the second they jump right in. Neruda writes,

         The smell of barber shops makes me sob out loud.
         I want nothing but the repose either of stones or of wool,
         I want to see no more establishments, no more gardens,
         Nor merchandise, nor glasses, nor elevators. (Neruda lns. 5-8)

It is these things, material things and modernist ideas that make us “human or civilized.” Yet the speaker has a disdain for them. In some unspoken way they are tearing out the soul of the animal that is man; leaving them less human. These objects civilizing-nature brings the speaker great anguish. So much pain that they wish to exit the existence of the human condition. It’s only the old ways of “stone or of wool” that can bring some modicum of comfort to the narrator’s mind (Neruda ln. 6). The poem’s speaker once more writes, “It happens that I am tired of being a man” (Neruda ln.11).  The speaker continues on with the disparate state of life in the city.

The juxtaposition of material goods and emotions displays how such things have come to take on emotional tendencies of their own. Much like contemporary television advertisements trying to associates their products with positive emotions Neruda’s imagery associates such objects with negativity. The last two stanza’s of the work exhibit this in poignant ways. Images of death, decay, grotesqueness, are placed on top of normal everyday things. For example the references to birds, intestines, doors, teeth, houses, coffee pot, umbrellas, navels, and poisons are all included in a one stanza frame. Taken by themselves they aren’t particularly interesting or grotesque but when combined with the speaker’s disposition they become something altogether different. The stanza reads as follows:

         There are birds the colour of Sulphur, and horrible intestines
         hanging from the doors of the houses which I hate,
         there are forgotten sets of teeth in a coffee-pot,
         there are mirrors
         which should have wept with shame and horror,
         there are umbrellas all over the place, and poisons, and navels. (Neruda lns. 34-39).

The speaker describes the horror and “truth” that lay behind each of these objects. Inside of each one a tiny piece of humanity digs in and dies there. No longer are things simple objects but objects only in relation to the minds in which they are viewed. Like many modernist wordsmiths Neruda is able to capture the subjective nature of existence through a discontented speaker. Objects are reflected in opposition to how they are presented in a “normal” content view of things. It is through the lens of the speaker that the image of the modern city becomes more rounded and understandable. This is where one facet of Neruda’s poetic genius lies, in the ability to show another side of the everyday experience.

Works Cited
Neruda, Pablo. “Walking Around”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 1423-1424. Print.

Gender, the "Other", and Desire in "The Rod of Justice"

           The Interactions between the sexes is a well-studied field giving insights into the worlds of fiction and reality. Through the artful writings of wordsmiths real-world truths are conjured and entombed in works of fiction. Joaquim Maria Machado De Assis’s work, “The Rod of Justice”, gives insight into the power-plays of male and female characters all acting to benefit themselves in a way suitable to their given desires. These benefits are kept in the foreground while the wills of other, in so long as they don’t help achieve these goals, are framed as ominous or insignificant “Others”. In order to fully grasp the inner mechanisms of gender and sexuality at play their definitions must first be established. To aid in establishing the definition and context thoughts of Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir prove useful.

            Judith Butler in her groundbreaking work, Gender Trouble, helps to establish “woman” as a form of “Other”; an unknown entity in which comparisons to the reigning group can be made. Butler writes, “Far from being subjects, women are, variously, the Other, a mysterious and unknowable lack, a sign of the forbidden and irrecoverable maternal body, of some unsavory mixture of the above” (Butler 202). Not being a subject of their own women take on a mysterious yet hollow presence in literature (and historically the social consciousness). Characters such as Lucretia exhibit this trait in “The Rod of Justice”. Eleven year old Lucretia is described as being, “a little Negress, a frail wisp of a thing with a scar on her forehead and a burn on her left hand” (Assis 913). We gleam little else from the text other than she has a cough, is fearful of her mistress, and wishes no bodily harm comes to her. Her thoughts, hopes, dreams, and anything else helping to create an identity for her are nonexistent.

            Her only interaction with the text is when Damião makes her laugh, which ends in a threat from Sinhá Rita, and in the final scene, where she is about to be beaten for not completing her task. In desperation she calls for the aid of Damião shouting, “Help me sweet young master!” (Assis 916). Though in this moment we find Damião’s earlier vow to protect her less valuable to him than his freedom from the clergy. In this instance the power shifts from his will to protect this frail young girl to saving himself by giving Sinhá Rita the power to bring harm. Lucretia manifests the poor repressed model of all oppressed women; those oppressed by both men and by other women.

            Simone De Beauvoir extends the idea of “Otherness” from just women to many other marginalized groups; albeit her focus is quite often solely on the role of women as “Other”. In her work, The Second Sex, Beauvoir covers the idea of “Other” in its relationship between the sexes. In the introduction of the work she writes, “Otherness is a fundamental category of human thought. Thus it is that no group ever sets itself up as the One without at once setting up the Other over against itself” (Beauvoir 151). This notion of the “Other” as battling both for and against itself can be seen in the character of Sinhá Rita. She battles for Damião in order to see her power over man at work. Yet, she brings harm to womankind by beating other women who she deems inferior to herself. Her power lies in her status as a widow (who likely inherited the power and wealth of her late husband), her ability to charm and domineer her lover (João Carneiro), and her status as “mistress of all this womenfolk—slaves of her own household and from outside” (Assis 915). She has a foot in both the world of women and that of the world of men.

The apex moment of her power comes near the conclusion of the text when she replies to João Carneiro’s letter stating, “Joãozinho, either you rescue the boy, or we never see each other again” (Assis 916). Here we witness the defeat of man through sexuality. She knows in her mind and heart that João Carneiro will do all he can to secure the boys freedom. Even Damião, fearing for his own freedom from the clergy adheres to her power disregarding his previous vow.

            Another connection between “The Rod of Justice” and Beauvoir’s The Second Sex can be found in Chapter XI: Myth and Reality. The text relays the position of man in comparison to that of women stating that, “Each is subject only for himself; each can grasp in immanence only himself, alone: from this point of view the other is always a mystery” (Beauvoir 1268). Damião represents this portion of “Otherness” particularly well. He is only really concerned with being able to leave the clergy. Outside of his own desire those of others only come into play when they may hinder his own goal. The thoughts and wishes of his father, his godfather, and Sinhá Rita are either unknown or marginalized. It isn’t until the final scene in which he becomes aware of this. The text states, “Damião froze… Cruel moment! A cloud passed before his eyes. Yes he had sworn to protect the little girl…” (Assis 916). In that moment he must make a choice between his own life and wishes or take a shot trying to protect the young girl. The latter choice would indubitably turn the fierce wrath of Sinhá Rita his way; possibly leading to his return to the clergy.

            Returning back to the work of Simone De Beauvoir it is here that Lucretia, the metaphorical “everywoman” learns a valuable lesson. As Beauvoir states, “while normally a woman finds numerous advantages in her relations with a man, his relations with a woman are profitable to a man only in so far as he loves her” (Beauvoir 1268). Although Damião wishes the best for this young girl he has no real love for her; therefore she suffers the rod. This dynamic can be seen in in contrast to that of Sinhá Rita and João Carneiro. João Carneiro risks bodily harm (at the hands of Damião’s father) and losing a friend for the love of Sinhá Rita.

            “The Rod of Justice” is an excellent microcosm of gender power roles involving “Otherness”, love, inferiority, and self-preservation. Within the works few pages volumes of issues and ideas are waiting to be brought to light. This truly shows how artful and poignant the works of Joaquim Maria Machado De Assis are, and furthermore, how the theories of feminist thinkers can be applied to them.       

Works Cited

Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado De. “The Rod of Justice”. The Norton Anthology of World             Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012.                     911-916. Print.

Beauvoir, Simone De. “Introduction”. The Second Sex. Identities: Race, Class, Gender, and           Nationality. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., Ed. Alcoff, Linda, and Eduardo Mendieta. 2006.        149-157. Print.

---. “Chapter XI: Myth and Reality”. The Second Sex. The Norton Anthology of Theory and            Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton. Ed. Leitch, Vincent B. 2010. 1265-1273. Print.

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble, Feminist Theory, and Psychoanalytic Discourse. Identities: Race, Class, Gender, and Nationality. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., Ed. Alcoff, Linda, and         Eduardo Mendieta. 2006. 201- 210. Print.

Martí and Darío : A Hypthetical Trip to the Pub with Walt Whitman

In order to fully demonstrate the commonalities of authors and thinkers it can, often enough, be useful to create a hypothetical situation in which authors, separated by time and/or space, meet and converse. Stepping into the great expansive realm of hypothetical we witness Walt Whitman, José Martí and Rubén Darío walk into a pub.

 What do they talk about? Is it the mob of people shouting and shifting among the smoky air? Is their topic of debate the well-endowed scandalous looking woman at the end of the bar in the revealing red dress? The lonely bar fly who never became a bride? The foul-smelling homeless man with one shoe sleeping in the dirt and muck around the corner? In all likelihood their topics would be concentrated on how to best portray the sorrows, the pain, the joy, and the bond between all of these people—and by extension all those who collectively makeup humankind. Sitting around a tall table on wobbly wooden stools perhaps they would each share a piece or two of their own works showing how even in poetry they are connected by this human bond.  

            Being the legend that he is Walt Whitman would undoubtedly go first in performing a line or two from “Song of Myself.” First, after taking a large gulp from his tall hoppy pint, he’d proclaim, “I pass with the dying and birth with the new-washed babe, and am not contained between my hat and boots [!]” (Whitman ch. 7 ln. 3-4). Those within earshot would nod their head in approval; a man is not all that he appears to be on the outside. Whitman, standing up from his stool, would proclaim his stance among the natural world or compare himself with the animals which live so happily without the social conventions humankind uses to espouse their woes. Speaking on their behalf he’d shout above the crowd yelling, “They do not sweat and whine about their condition,/ They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,/ They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God” (Whitman Ch.32 lns.4-6). Turning to the natural world to show how the capability for bliss and peace is always around humankind, but nevertheless is difficult to find inside the canister of the human body. At this point all three would clink their glasses together, all three sharing the sentiment of humankind yearning for the natural state in which they were derived. After returning to their stool José Martí would raise his glass signaling it was time for him to take his turn in the discussion.

            Standing tall, and tipping his well-worn hat to Whitman, he would recite some lines from “I am an Honest Man”,

In the mountains, I am a mountain.

I know the strange names

Of the herbs and the flowers

And of mortal deceits

And of sublime pains. (Martí lns. 8-12)

Whitman seeing the natural imagery connecting to his own work would slap him on the back and tease him hinting about plagiarism. Martí would share his two cents about how all things are connected and that among humans he, and all others, are humans—whether black, brown, white, or purple—all belong to the great human experience.

Afterward, finding himself preaching to the choir, Martí would take his seat. A dark grey mood brought on by spirits would overcome them. Leaning in close they’d begin talks of life, love, and deceit. Another topic would float through their conversations. The conversation of death, in one form or another, and the ways in which humankind continues on even in the face of great adversity. As the ruckus of the pub rages on Martí would whisper,

I have seen a man live

With his dagger at his side,

Without ever saying the name

Of she who had killed him. (Martí lns. 21-24)

He’d talk more about when he had seen his soul counting one of two times being when “she said good-bye to [him]” and an ominous silence would spread across the table (Martí ln.27). Rubén Darío, seeing that the creative energies of his comrades slowly being spent for the evening, would then stand, pour some of his drink to the floor and begin his own speech.

            Knowing that each of them is well aware of the shared burden of human life he’d speak without great pomp reciting from his work “Fatality.” He would say,

The tree is happy because it is scarcely sentient;

The rock is happier still, it feels nothing:

There is no pain as great as being alive,

No burden heavier than that of conscious life. (Darío lns. 1-4).

They three would sit for a quiet moment reflecting on this heavy load they must carry throughout life. Whitman would consider the power of life and the freedom offered but not always taken. Martí would consider the potent emotions conjured across the span of a lifetime. Darío would consider how we are all bound across nations and times in the great drama of human life. Together they’d sip on their beer in silence. Their table an isolated gossamer bubble among the hustle and bustle of the pub.

            Each nearly reaching their peak thinking, the moment before self-realization, until Walt Whitman would stand up from his stool and flip over the table sending the empty bottles and glasses crashing to the floor. The pub would become as quiet as a cemetery on a foggy night until Whitman, with an animalistic look on his face, shouted, “I too am not a bit tamed, I too an untranslatable,/ I sound my barbaric yawp over the roofs of the world[!]” (Whitman ch. 52 lns. 3-4). After which they’d be thrown out of the pub and, after a few slaps on the back and their half-hearted drunken goodbyes, return once more to their private lives contemplating the human condition’s interweaving relationship with the natural world in which it resides. 

Works Cited

Darío, Rubén. “Fatality”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third            Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 695. Print.

Martí, José. “I am an Honest Man”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third        Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 681. Print.

Whitman, Walt. Song of Myself. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 648-653. Print.

An Essay on Man: Evil for Good? Good for Evil?

All partial evil, Universal Good

-Alexander Pope

(An Essay on Man ln. 292)

The existence of “evil” has always been at odds with the concept of an omnipotent divine force. Such a dichotomy has spawned a rich literary tradition addressing the battle of “good” versus “evil”. Ancient thinkers such as Plato attributed the disorder and “evil” within the world to something Other than God. Other philosophers, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, believe that concepts such as “good” and “evil” are nothing more than ideas conjured by humans to disassociate the nothingness that is the reality of being.  A differing opinion lies with Alexander Pope and his contemporaries. They espoused a divinely ordered system in which humankind is not able to see beyond their given station in a great chain of order (ranging from the lowest of lifeforms up to God). As Pope writes in An Essay on Man, “All are but parts of one stupendous whole, / Whose body Nature is; and God the soul” (Pope, lns. 267-268). Being limited by their own position within the chain humankind cannot understand the purpose which the concept of “evil” plays in the grander scheme of things. Pope postulates that mankind’s understanding of “evil” is essentially a teleological argument. Meaning that the outcome or goal of evil is not comprehensible by humankind but nonetheless serves some greater unknown purpose. By allocating evil into this category Pope is able to justify the existence of an anthropomorphic deity harboring supreme “goodness” and their subsequent allowance of “evil”.

First turning an eye to the ancient world we will take a look at how the ancient Greeks answered the question of why “evil” exists. Plato addressed this issue in Book II of the Republic attributing the existence of “evil” to something outside of God. Plato states, “Since [God] is good he cannot be responsible for everything, as is commonly said,” furthermore, “He and he alone must be held responsible for the good things, but responsibility for bad things must be looked for elsewhere and not attributed to God” (Plato 48). The locus of this “other” place isn’t directly addressed by Plato, nonetheless he was decidedly satisfied with such an answer.

Other, more contemporary thinkers, decided that concepts such as “good,” “evil” and even God are hollow and only come into being due to the thoughts and dispositions of man. Such thinkers believe that it was humankind which first created a dichotomy between “good” and “evil”. Furthermore, humankind has quite often created anthropomorphic figures embodying one or the other (for instance God and Satan). The infamous 19th century thinker Friedrich Nietzsche noted this phenomenon in many of his works including in On Truth and Lying in a Non-Moral Sense. In the work he posits that, “[people] are deeply immersed in illusions and dream-images; their eyes merely glide across the surface of things and see ‘forms’; nowhere does their perception lead to truth” (Nietzsche pg. 765). An argument can be made that the concepts of “good” and “evil” are illusions helping people to justify the various emotional states associated with happenings of their lives. People believe that certain actions are “good” or “evil” for a myriad of reasons but such thoughts are shattered when a wide array of cultures and time periods are exposed by the work of anthropologists. Both “good” and “bad” are subjective terms created by various societies throughout time.

            In Nietzsche’s work Human, All Too Human A Book For Free Spirits he flips the notions of “good” and “evil” on their head showing how they can be framed in a subjective way. He writes, “Is good perhaps evil? And God only an invention and subtlety of the devil? Is everything, in the last resort, false? And if we are dupes are we not on that very account dupers also? Must we not be dupers also?” (Nietzsche ch. 3). Perhaps it is humankind who has created the distinction between “good” and “evil”, order and disorder, right and wrong, etc.. If “good” and “evil” can be framed in opposing ways who is to say what exactly is “evil”?

With these two options in mind we can now think about Alexander Popes’ idea as a differing point between these two theories. Instead of Plato’s ambiguous “evil Other” and Nietzsche’s human-made mirage Pope offers a third option for the existence of “evil”.

Pope espouses that within the scope of our link we cannot begin to fathom the other links of the great chain. It is with this in mind that the notion of “evil” is transformed into something that appears to be “evil” when viewed through a human lens—but may be serving some larger purpose when viewed macroscopically. Pope, in his work An Essay on Man, alludes to this in the following lines:

So Man, who here seems principle alone,

Perhaps acts second to some sphere unknown,

Touches some wheel, or verges to some goal;

‘Tis but part we see, and not a whole. (Alexander Pope, lns. 57-60)

The labors of humankind are only a small piece of the grand scheme and what we do here on earth may only be a small cog in the universal machine. By doing so he releases humankind from the burden of “evil” and allocates this idea to one of many forces at work within universe. It is a cog which helps propel the universal machine ever-forward into the future; for the greater good of all.

            Pope’s argument can appear rather similar to that of Plato’s in its final form. Both place the existence of “evil” outside the concept of God. Though Pope’s allows for “evil” to serve a purpose that can’t be understood from the position of humankind. Perhaps the answer lies somewhere between these three thinkers. Maybe the notion of “evil” is just an idea conjured by a young species desperately attempting to make sense of the reality in which they find themselves; and the things which they deem to be “evil” are actually the stumbling blocks leading to a greater good further down the road.

Works Cited

Nietzsche, Friedrich. Human, All Too Human A Book For Free Spirits. Trans. Alexander Harvey.             Charles H. Kerr & Company, 1908. N. Pag. EPUB File.

---. On Truth and Lying in a Non-Moral Sense.  The Norton Anthology of Theory & Criticism.                          Ed. Vincent B. Leitch et al. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2010. 765. Print.

Plato. Republic. The Norton Anthology of Theory & Criticism. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch et al. 2nd ed.                   New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2010. 45-76. Print.

Pope, Alexander. An Essay on Man. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third                        Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 90-97. Print.

Montaigne

Cultural myths take center stage in the amphitheater of the social consciousness. These vital myths are the mediums through which the ideas and stories of any given culture conjure its self-image. They are a society’s cloudy mirror, reflecting a skewed vision of what any given society truly harbors. These myths build cultural cohesion between individuals and groups uniting them under one high-flying banner, paying homage to their uniqueness and distinct place in the well-fingered pages of history. They teach specific self-serving versions of history, vividly illustrate the glorious facets of their cultural identity, and quite often paint their culture as superior to those of others. Within these mythical ideas of superiority in which terms such as “savage” and “barbarian” are spawned; the notions of the less sophisticated, less intelligent, less technologically advanced “Others” are an essential facet in a given social consciousness’ adherence to their own myths of superiority. In short for superiority to exist there must be “Others” who are “inferior” to one degree or another. This occurs at both macroscopic (on a country to country basis) and microscopic (group to group; especially in the professional sports and political world). By creating this dichotomy varying levels of “barbarianism” exist within the minds of all those who adhere to the group dynamic.

            History is rife with examples of the “superior” defining the mysterious “Others” as barbarians due to misunderstanding their differences and societal evolution. The famous anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss touched on such notions in his works “The structural Study of Myth” and his longer work Tristes Tropiques among others. The Norton Anthology of Literary Theory summarizes one of the primary ideas Levi-Strauss theories stating, “Myths make order out of the simultaneity of conflicting theories: they narrate over, without resolving a cultural contradiction” (“Claude Levi-Strauss” 1275). In the instance of barbarism the “superior” culture conveniently forgets to canvas their own malevolent actions and amplify those of the “inferior” culture. By doing so their phantasmagoric superiority is dispersed to the populace at large and the mirage of barbarism marches onward into the future. In short, one group will tend to raise the flag or superiority over actions or ideas they don’t find suitable to their station or life experiences. From the American football fan demeaning his friend for supporting a “weaker” team to the bad-blood between various religions each side will be inclined to think their side is superior in some way, shape, or form.

Michel De Montaigne, highlights this phenomenon in his work Of Cannibals writing, “So [the “superior” culture] may call these people barbarians, in respect to their rules of reason, but not in respect to ourselves[those of the “superior” culture], who surpass them in every kind of barbarity” (De Montaigne 1657). In the specific context of the work he highlights the practices of the “savages” in the New World contrasted with the “superior” practices of the Old World. He primarily comments on the treatment, torture, and killing of war-prisoners among the indigenous peoples of the New World versus the horrors of European torture and execution (particularly being burned at the stake). Today, in a world growing more and more associated by the day, these archaic notions of “superiority” are still propagated through such mechanisms as mass media, historical texts, social-media, and old fashioned word of mouth.   

In the modern world much criticism has been cast toward the people who believe and follow various sects of Islamic belief. The rise of such groups as ISIS, Al Queda, and other terror-driven organizations have caused presidential candidates, such as Donald Trump, to make blanket statements alluding to the idea that all Muslims are a threat or that they are—to put it simply—barbarians. Mr. Trump, referring to himself in the third person, has stated things such as, “Donald J. Trump is calling for a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States…” (Heilpern). In contrast to what could often be deemed as common sense many potential voters have joined him in sharing these sentiments of barbarity; quotes about Muslims taking over the United States are a common sight on social-media based websites such as Twitter and Facebook. Memes showing the atrocities committed by terrorists (such as beheadings) can be seen and are shared to help fan the flames of hatred on both sides of the issue. Unfortunately many people who have absolutely no affiliations to terrorism are being grouped together as the “Other” less superior group.

Things have gotten to a degree in which the dichotomy between “them” and “us” has solidified itself within the social sphere; as it always has. As long as groups of people find something to disagree about new dichotomies will continue to be birthed. The questions we should be asking are “How are they different? What do they have/think that is malign? What is good? Is it everyone or just a few people?” Without such rhetoric malformed notions of superiority/inferiority will continue to exist based on nothing more than smoke, mirrors, and the cyclical trends of the human species. 

Works Cited:

De Montaigne, Michel. Of Cannibals. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition, Two- Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2012. 1657. Print.

Heilpern, Will. "Trump Campaign: 11 Outrageous Quotes." CNN. Cable News Network, 23 Feb. 2016. Web. 8 June 2016.

Leitch, Vincent B. “Claude Levi-Strauss”. The Norton Anthology of Theory & Criticism. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch et al. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2010. 1320-1321. Print.

Sunjata

        The Mande people, hailing from sub-Saharan West Africa, Guinea, and Mali, have a collective identity through the sharing of orally based tales; they all share a connection despite having varying languages and differing particulars within each subgroup. These tales are spread from one generation to the next by a special caste of individuals known as jeliw. As the Norton Anthology of World Literature points out, "jeliw are known to their people as guardians of 'The Word'"(Puchner 1514). Jeliw pass on the oral histories and legends of their ancestors and culture, applying their own individual styles and unique talents, in order for their collective identity to persevere. The epic tale of Sunjata highlights a unique function of such oral traditions; the ability to relate the conception of a tradition to its use in more contemporary times. The particular tradition being addressed is the development of the bride-escorting song into contemporary times.   

The bride escorting song takes place between 49 lines of prose and shows the inception of a cultural tradition. Within the work the mother of Sunjata, a great warrior/hunter and eventual king of the Mande people, lacks any modicum of physical beauty and suffers from physical handicaps. Although her name is Sogolon Wulen Conde she has been given other, more malevolent names. The Sunjata texts states, “some call her Humpbacked Sogolon. Some call her Ugly Sogolon. Everybody used to call her whatever they felt like” (Sunjata lines 356-358). The text also mentions “her bald head, A hump on her back” and that her “feet are twisted” and furthermore that “she is knock-kneed” (Sunjata lns. 328-329, 339, 340). All of this was caused by a powerful and magical character within the Mande community. And although Sogolon is physically deficient she does possess a massive amount of dalilu (magic).  

With the back knowledge established we can now begin to ascertain how the Mande tradition was established. Sogolon is taken to marry a Mande king (fulfilling a prophecy forecasting the birth of Sunjata). Upon arriving at the town she must first wait for the king to prepare to greet her (for he knows of her magic and must prepare to prove his value to her). When the moment arrives for her to begin her walk into town, “she could not walk without raising dust” causing her sister-in-laws to be covered in a fine coat of dust (Sunjata ln. 752). The sister-in-laws sang the following song in response: 

Walk well,
Bride of my brother,
Walk well.
Do not put us in the dust (Sunjata lns. 759-762)

Deciding the dust was bothersome the sister-in-laws decided that carrying her was a better option. The text then states, 

That is how carrying the bride originated.
 If you see that when the bride arrives at the outskirts of the town, 
The women pick her up and run with her,
That was done because of the condition of Sogolon Conde’s feet (Sunjata lns.767-771)

The inclusion of the beginnings of a cultural traditions are an important facet  of orally transmitted cultures. They allow members of the culture, who may not have tangible access to this knowledge otherwise, to know how and where the tradition began and why traditions are carried out in particular ways. It also helps the younger generations realize that they too are part of the cohesive element keeping a culture together; everything is connected, regardless of how much time has passed since the dawn of a given culture.

Such traditions exist in every corner of the map, many of which have ancient roots which branch into the modern world. Some traditions could be particularly peculiar when viewed from an American standpoint. For instance in Sweden both the bride and groom will be kissed by guests at their wedding. If the bride leaves a room, single females will line up to kiss the groom, the same goes for the bride if the groom leaves the room (Khan/Wikipedia). Another example can be found in the Massai Nation in Kenya. During these wedding ceremonies, “The father of the bride blesses his daughter by spitting on her head and breasts. Spitting is a symbol of disgrace usually but in Massai nation it is thought to bring good luck and fortune” (Khan). These traditions, if viewed from a singular American lens would at first appear to blatantly obtuse. Though if enough time has passed, or the origin of such traditions are explored, they will seem no more or less obtuse than wearing a white dress, kissing the bride/groom, or having rice thrown at the new couple. 

These traditions are all similar in their need to bring a community of people together to carry out the rituals. They are all a form of bonding and a sign of change in the lives of those being married, and those who watch their children be married off. 
They do all differ considerably in their methods of action. Spitting on anyone during their wedding day would be a grave offence in many countries, kissing in public could be offensive in other, but with the knowledge of the meaning behind such actions one can overlook the seemingly gross or bizarre nature of the rituals. Regardless the great human custom of marriage will continue to be declared and celebrated in wondrous, bizarre, and traditional ways.

Works Cited

Khan, Ejaz. "10 Bizarre Wedding Rituals in Various Cultures." WondersList. 2013. Web. 02 June 2016. 

Puchner, Martin. “Sunjata: A West African Epic of the Mande Peoples”. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 1514-1517. Print.

Sunjata: A West African Epic of the Mande Peoples. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 1517-1576. Print.

"Wedding Customs by Country." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. Web. 04 June 2016. 

Bashō

The embedded YouTube video “Matsuo Basho” posted by RaulSantiagoSebazco is a clever juxtaposition illustrating the journey, both literally and aesthetically, of the historical Basho. In essence the video is a form of “Modern Haiga” complimenting both the art of Basho’s words, Japanese Shamisen music, and the Haiga paintings of Basho himself.

 The video opens with a map of “Basho’s Trail” beginning in Edo (current day Old Tokyo) and ending near the city of Nara. Norman Howard of National Geographic notes the duration of this trek stating, “[Basho] walked for five months through the uplands and lowlands, villages, and mountains north of Edo and along the shores of the Sea of Japan” (Howard). This image opens the video to give the audience an understanding of the physical length of Basho’s wandering and alludes to the vast array of experiences and sights he would have seen along the way. Adding an additional layer of reverence for the master of the Haiku. Throughout the rest of the video Haikus are juxtaposed with Haiga paintings helping to compliment, but not explain, the poetic verses of Basho.

            As stated by Poets.org “Haiga paintings, like the haikus accompanying them, are usually restrained, with minimal ink brush strokes and light color” (Poets.org). During Basho’s lifetime he studied the art of Haiga; mixing the visual manifestations of his poems with the reality it depicted. It’s important to keep in mind that these two mediums were meant purely as compliments to one another; not as explanations. As poets.org states, “in some cases the Haiku and the painting have nothing to do with one another” and that if the Haiga did indeed “copy” the Haiku it wouldn't be an acceptable medium to convey their poetic message. As, Susumi Takiguchi—founder of the World Haiku Club—states, “if the painting and haiku are [similar], it would mean that one has been added because the other is not adequate” (Poets.org). This could be interpreted as a form of disrespect for the artist(s) or their given artform(s).

            Often times the poems and the paintings would be by the same artist, or by friends/pupils of the poet; such as the relationship between Basho and Morikawa Kyoriku in which they would share their expertise in their given art forms for mutual benefit (Wikipedia). If one looks close they can see the Haiku elegantly written on each of the Haiga; each component is working their own forms of aesthetic magic upon the audience for an enhanced effect. The Haiku’s were to be written in a calligraphic nature in order to add more aesthetic value to the work as a whole. Poetry.org states, “calligraphy—determines the look of the poem on the page and communicates its essence” (Poetry.org). Unfortunately the video uses simple fonts to convey the essence of each Haiku; detracting from the intended effect of the digital Haiga. This video pays homage to all facets of Haiga and Haiku while giving them a twenty-first century medium in which to be conveyed.

 

Works Cited:

"Haiga." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 9 Mar. 2016. Web. 23 May 2016.

 

Howard, Norman. "Basho." On the Poet's Trail. National Geographic, Feb. 2009. Web. 23 May 2016.

 

"The Haiga: Haiku, Calligraphy, and Painting." Poets.org. Academy of American Poets, 21 Feb. 2014. Web. 24 May 2016. 

RaulSantiagoSebazco. “Matsuo Basho”. Online Video Clip. YouTube. YouTube, 9 Apr.  2010. Web. 23 May 2016

If you are interested in Basho please check out the following Video by "School of Life"!

Classic of Poetry

The umbrella term “education” has taken on many shapes and sizes throughout recorded history. I hasn’t always been long lines of uncomfortable desks with plastic chairs made in the pits of hell. There have been, and continue to be places, where education has been carried on through oral traditions. In fact a majority of historical education has been purely through cultural modes of conveyance; for example poetry. In classic Chinese poetry all one needed to know, or so they said, was written among the lines of eloquently composed poems. There are poems helping to incite social order, those displaying traditional familial roles, others giving a sense of historicity to a powerful group of people and even the structure of the poems themselves helped aspiring poets and readers (both past and present) to bathe in their unique construction and elegant styles. Education, for an untold amount of souls, was to be found in the Classic of Poetry.

Many of the original author’s names have been lost to history and a great number of works have been honorably attributed to Confucius. As stated in the Norton Anthology of World Literature, “Confucius believed that political order depended on the ability of individuals in society to cultivate their moral virtue and thus contribute to social order” (“Classic of Poetry” 756). Throughout many of the works varying cultural niches are displayed giving all facets of society routes in which to help the society in which they live. This use of “feng” allows poetry to sway the opinions of those who are the poem’s audience (757). One such cultural norm displayed throughout many works is the role of a young woman.

One example can be found in “VI. Peach Tree Soft and Tender,” in which a young woman goes from being a blooming bride to a mother and progenitor of future generations. The initial stanza uses the images associated with springtime blossoms and a beauty that is fresh and fertile. This is followed by a tree beginning to bear fruit (an allusion to children) and finally “[her] leaves begin to spread thick and full” (“Peach Tree Soft and Tender” 760). In the final stanza we see her family tree branching further and further out into the future. The values shown here are that women were needed and expected to be the “soft and supple” peach tree of familial life; as they married, made and raised babies, they honor their home and family (760). By first blooming, then bearing fruit, then being the strong tree holding up the rest of the family a woman was capable of fulfilling her role in the family and in the world.

Other types of moral lessons can be found in “CCXLV. She Bore the Folk” in which we are able to see the birth of a tradition, the inherent goodness of hard work, and the roles of men and women through the birth and life of Lord Millet. It’s important to note that this work is also closely tied to the ancestry of the Zhou clan which also helps to create a social cohesion of sorts (758).  The use of rhetorical devices is imperative in legend establishing longer works such as “She Bore the Folk”.

The works created their own styles effectively using a certain style of rhetoric in order to create cultural adherence to acceptable values and ideas; one important mechanism was enumeration. “Enumeration [is] the telling of sequences of events in a straight forward narrative fashion” (758). By utilizing rhetorical tools such as this authors and readers could mimic or expound upon standards already set. Although not everyone was capable of reading these works there was still a large significance to their oral power as well.

These poems have lived on for over 1300 years and have influenced common people and prolific poets since their creation, Ezra Pound being one of the most notable in contemporary times. These works, some now nearing their 3000^th birthday, are still alive both in their native land and all across the globe; a true testament to their skill and ability to give some insight into the past and the human condition.

Works Cited:   

Puchner, Martin Et. Al.. “Classic of Poetry” The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 756-766. Print.       

“VI. Peach Tree Soft and Tender”. Classic of Poetry. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 760. Print.  

   

“CCXLV. She Bore the Folk”. Classic of Poetry. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 756-766. Print.       

Somadeva : The Desires and Disguises

            Disguises can offer a whole host of interpretations yet all can agree that those who wish to disguise themselves are trying to either hide something they are or they are trying to be something they’re not. Within the works of Somadeva, particularly in The Red Lotus of Chastity, disguise is used to accomplish both. In particular women utilize the art of disguise as an extension of the cunning they already possess in order to obtain that which they desire. Through the masterful use of disguise wickedness is hidden behind the veil of the innocent and the holy, servants are raised to the status of masters, and women are given the free-ranging abilities of men. In each instance the woman is taking charge of a matter and, through disguise, becoming more powerful than their “normal” self appears to be.

            The first encounter with the art of disguise is seen in its use by Siddhikari in her heist of a wealthy merchant’s money. Disguised as a maid she was able to situate herself close enough to her employer until her evil intentions were played out. As the story states, “as soon as the merchant had come to trust her, she stole all the gold he had in his house and sneaked away at dawn” (Somadeva 1276). Afterward she dawned the robe of feigned suicidal thoughts and killed a potential rival for the money. Finally she uses an Eros disguise and bites the tongue off of a servant whom had come to retrieve her. Through each trial she disguises herself to be something she isn’t to gain the upper hand. Disguise is her hidden dagger that remains unseen until it is too late.

            The second use of disguise is by the wandering nun Yogakarandika. Her disguise is one she is always publicly wearing. Being a nun she should be trusted and held in high esteem, yet she is more than willing to do evil deeds simply for the fun of doing them. In The Red Lotus of Chastity she is offered money to help a few malevolent men to commit infidelity with Devasmita. It’s important to note that Yogakarandika refuses any monetary payment. She states, “I have no desire for money” (1275). Her object of desire is pride in her cunning and the use of wickedness to gain some sense of power within the world. So without payment of any kind she enters Devasmita’s home in an attempt to bring wickedness upon her. She then disguises each of the four men as one of her own pupils who all end up being deceived by the cleverest character within the work, Devasmita.

            Devasmita dresses up her own servants to play her role within the household. Each faux-suiter is drugged, branded, and left to sleep in the gutter. Devasmita in her wisdom recognizes the wicked nature of the nun and her pupil and punishes them for their actions. She punishes them by drugging them and “cut[ting] of their noses and ears [then] toss[ing] them outside in a sewage pit” (1278). Then, fearing for her husband’s safety she hatches a plot to protect her husband from the revenge of those who challenged her fidelity.

            As any great woman does in times of need she visits her mother who recites an old folk tale about a woman who disguises herself to save her husband’s life (1278). She decides to embark upon a similar path and disguises herself and her servants as men to cross the sea in safety. As the text states, Devasmita and her maids disguised themselves as merchants, boarded a ship on the pretext of business, then departed for Cathay where her husband was staying” (1279). Had she attempted to cross alone, with a band of servants, she would have most definitely been stopped before reaching her husband. Through the art of disguise she is able to temporarily hide her “womanness” and convey a convincing masculine aura of power despite her feminine features.

            Her disguise even befuddles her husband Gusahena upon arrival when viewing her from a distance he “drank deep of the make image of his beloved wife. He wondered what such a delicate person could have to do with the merchant’s profession” (1279). In the end she uses the power of her disguise to gain an audience with the king and set everything right. Her cunning and physical disguises allow her to obtain money, her husbands adoration, and a continued presence with her beloved.

            In each instance women wear physical or immaterial disguises to [attempt to] obtain that which they desire. Essentially this is a tale in which “good” desires ultimately trump the “evil” desires. The use of disguise reflects on both the real benefits of being something else and the necessity of having to be something else in front of men. Regardless the disguise doesn’t mask the cunning nature of the powerfully driven women in The Red Lotus of Chastity.

Works Cited

Somadeva. The Red Lotus of Chastity. The Norton Anthology of World Literature: Shorter Third Edition. Two-Volume Set. W.W. Norton. Ed. M Puchner. 2013. 1274-1279. Print.